Trichloroethylene (TCE)
Treatment Technologies
- Overview
- Policy and Guidance
- Chemistry and Behavior
- Environmental Occurrence
- Toxicology
- Detection and Site Characterization
- Treatment Technologies
- Conferences and Seminars
- Additional Resources
The preliminary assessment of remediation technologies feasible for reclamation of subsurface environmental media contaminated with TCE must involve consideration of the compound's physical and chemical properties (i.e., distribution coefficients, reactivity, solubility, etc.). These properties are directly responsible for behavior, transport, and fate of the chemical in the subsurface environment. Knowledge of a compound's physico-chemical tendencies can be used to alter behavior and fate of that compound in the environment.
TCE contamination frequently is addressed with pump-and-treat systems for remediation and containment of the dissolved-phase plume, but some innovative technologies have demonstrated a capacity for fairly rapid removal of mass from DNAPL source zones, and others have treated dissolved-phase contamination successfully. Approaches applied to the remediation of TCE and other DNAPLs include bioremediation, electrokinetics, flushing technologies (cosolvent/alcohol flooding, surfactant flushing, in situ oxidation), monitored natural attenuation, phytoremediation, thermal processes (steam injection, electrical heating, in situ vitrification), volatilization technologies (soil vapor extraction, air sparging, in-well stripping), and treatment walls. Additional information, including site-specific reports, is available at Technology Focus.
Survey Publications/Presentations
Contaminants in the Subsurface: Source Zone Assessment and Remediation
National Research Council, Committee on Source Removal of Contaminants in the Subsurface.
National Academies Press, Washington, DC. ISBN: 030909447X, 383 pp, 2004
After discussing the definition of 'source zone' and the characterization thereof, this report reviews the suite of technologies available for source remediation and their ability to reach a variety of cleanup goals, from meeting regulatory standards for ground water to reducing costs. The report proposes elements of a protocol for accomplishing source remediation that should enable project managers to decide whether and how to pursue source remediation at their sites.
Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPLs): Review of Emerging Characterization and Remediation Technologies
Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC). DNAPLs-1, 81 pp, 2000.
Reviews three general types of emerging DNAPL characterization technologies and two categories of emerging DNAPL remediation technologies: thermal enhanced extraction and in situ chemical oxidation.
Development of Assessment Tools for Evaluation of the Benefits of DNAPL Source Zone Treatment
L.M. Abriola, P. Goovaerts, K.D. Pennell, and F.E. Loeffler.
SERDP Project ER-1293, 173 pp, 2008
This report details the results of work that has enhanced the understanding of significant mechanisms controlling DNAPL source zone behavior and describes lessons learned that can provide improved DNAPL site management strategies. It discusses 4 important concepts: (1) partial source-zone mass removal can result in substantial local concentration and mass flux reductions; (2) potential remediation efficiency is closely linked to source-zone architecture (ganglia-to-pool ratios); (3) biostimulation and bioaugmentation approaches are feasible for treatment of DNAPL source zones; and (4) the uncertainty in mass discharge ([M/T]) estimates can be quantified through application of geostatistical methods to field measurements.
The DNAPL Remediation Challenge: Is There a Case for Source Depletion?
EPA 600-R-03-143, 2003
Releases of Dense Non-Aqueous Phase Liquids (DNAPLs) at a large number of public and private sector sites in the United States pose signifi cant challenges in site remediation and long-term site management. Extensive contamination of groundwater occurs as a result of signifi cant dissolved plumes generated from these DNAPL source zones that vary in size and complexity depending on site characteristics and DNAPL properties and distribution. Risk and liability management, consistent with regulatory compliance requirements, could involve remediation of the source zone as well as management of the dissolved plume.
DNAPL Remediation: Selected Projects Where Regulatory Closure Goals Have Been Achieved
EPA 542-R-09-008, 2009
The purpose of this paper is to highlight sites where dense nonaqueous phase liquid (DNAPL) source reduction has been demonstrated as an aid in meeting regulatory cleanup goals. The presence of DNAPL in the subsurface can serve as a long-term source of dissolved contaminant plumes in groundwater, making it more difficult to reach regulatory closure. However, once the DNAPL source is addressed, residual groundwater plumes may be more amenable to treatment, including less aggressive techniques such as monitored natural attenuation (MNA) or bioremediation. This paper updates the document, DNAPL Remediation: Selected Projects Approaching Regulatory Closure, prepared in 2004 by providing more recent information on technologies and on five additional selected sites at which DNAPL source reduction technologies were applied.
DNAPL Source Reduction: Facing the Challenge
Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC). DNAPLs-2, 42 pp, 2002.
Description of some aggressive in situ technologies to eliminate or reduce DNAPL source zones.
Enhanced Attenuation: Approaches to Increase the Natural Treatment Capacity of a System
Tom Early, et al.
WSRC-TR-2005-00198, 161 pp, 2006
This guide covers the following EA approaches: (1) hydraulic manipulation to reduce contaminant infiltration using low-permeability barriers, diffusion barriers, covers, encapsulation, and diversion of electron acceptors; (2) passive residual source reduction (e.g., bioventing); (3) increase in system attenuation capacity via biological processes, such as bioaugmentation, biostimulation, and wetlands development and other plant-based methods; (4) abiotic and biologically mediated abiotic attenuation methods; and (5) reactive barriers.
Enhanced Attenuation: Chlorinated Organics
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) Enhanced Attenuation: Chlorinated Organics Team. EACO-1, 109 pp., Apr 2008.
This report was produced by the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). Many sites with chlorinated organic contamination in groundwater have gone through extensive remedial evaluations and actions. The remedial alternatives for many of these sites include high-energy treatments such as pump-and-treat systems. After years of operation, the effectiveness of these high-energy processes has begun to diminish without remedial objectives being met. Other more effective remedial alternatives need to be implemented; however, there is a lack of guidance available to regulators and the environmental community regarding how and when to transition these sites to lower-energy remedial alternatives and eventually to monitored natural attenuation (MNA). To answer this need, the ITRC Enhanced Attenuation: Chlorinated Organics (EACO) Team developed this guidance, which includes a protocol to assist in a smooth transition (or a bridge) between aggressive remedial actions and MNA.
Enhancements to Natural Attenuation: Selected Case Studies
T.O. Early (ed.).
WSRC-STI-2007-00250, 132 pp, 2007
Presents case studies of engineered covers; biostimulation and bioaugmentation to address trichloroethene (TCE) contamination at Cape Canaveral, FL; a ZVI PRB for TCE and chromate at the U.S. Coast Guard Support Center, Elizabeth City, NC; a full-scale mulch biowall for TCE at Offutt Air Force Base, NE; and a wetland enhancement/reactive mat for TCE, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, and 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane at Aberdeen Proving Ground.
Estimating Cleanup Times Associated with Combining Source-Area Remediation with Monitored Natural Attenuation
M. Widdowson, F. Chapelle, C. Casey, and M. Kram.
NFESC TR-2288-ENV, 192 pp, 2008
U.S. EPA guidance specifically requires a reasonable time frame for MNA to achieve site-specific cleanup objectives; thus, it is necessary to provide estimates of cleanup times whenever MNA is proposed as part of a cleanup strategy. The U.S. Navy, USGS, and Virginia Tech have developed Natural Attenuation Software (NAS) as a screening tool designed for estimating time of remediation for MNA with varying degrees of source area remediation. This report describes the software and the results of its use at 8 sites contaminated primarily with chlorinated ethenes.
In Situ Enhanced Source Removal
Carl Enfield (U.S. EPA), et al. EPA 600-C-99-002, 1999.
Contact: Carl Enfield, enfield.carl@epa.gov
This report evaluates demonstrations of co-solvent solubilization, co-solvent mobilization, surfactant solubilization, surfactant mobilization, micro-emulsions, macromolecular complexation, steam injection, air sparging, and soil vapor extraction.
Frequently Asked Questions Regarding Management of Chlorinated Solvents in Soils and Groundwater
T. Sale, C. Newell, H. Stroo, R. Hinchee, and P. Johnson.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0530, 38 pp, 2008
This brief document addresses 25 key questions, providing a concise overview of current knowledge regarding the management of subsurface chlorinated solvent releases. Source zone areas are defined and discussed, with summaries of the benefits and limitations of various source characterization and remediation technologies. The document addresses current technical and practical limitations, as well as the changes that have occurred over time at many chlorinated solvent sites. Although the document is meant neither to foster nor discourage source zone treatment, it takes a hard look at the costs and performance of the most commonly used source zone treatment technologies and compares source treatment to alternative containment approaches.
Pilot Project to Optimize Ground Water Remediation Systems at RCRA Corrective Action Facilities: Summary Report and Lessons Learned
U.S. EPA, Office of Solid Waste and Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation.
EPA 542-R-04-018, 26 pp., 2004.
This document summarizes information derived from Remedial Site Evaluations (RSEs) performed at five RCRA sites during 2003 and 2004. The primary contaminants of concern at all five sites are chlorinated solvents, such as TCE, and four of the five sites involve contamination that is present in fractured rock.
SERDP/ESTCP Expert Panel Workshop on Research and Development Needs for Cleanup of Chlorinated Solvent Sites
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), 87 pp, 2001.
Strategies for Monitoring the Performance of DNAPL Source Zone Remedies
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC) Dense Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids Team. DNAPLs-5, 206 pp., Aug 2004.
This document is intended for regulators and others interested in learning about approaches to performance monitoring while implementing various in situ technologies for the treatment of DNAPLs. In this document, we present a number of ways in which the success or failure in treating a DNAPL source zone has been measured. Because the vast majority of experience in DNAPL source zone remediation has been in unconsolidated geologies, such as sands and silts, many of the conclusions, recommendations, and lessons learned presented in this document do not necessarily transfer to performance assessment in fractured bedrock, karst, or other consolidated geologies.
Synthesis Report on Five Dense, Nonaqueous-Phase Liquid (DNAPL) Remediation Projects
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH.
EPA 600-R-07-066, 94 pp, 2007
Summarizes the performance and results of demonstration projects for the remediation of DNAPL contamination at five sites: (1) thermally enhanced remediation with resistive heating and with steam injection/extraction for TCE DNAPL at Launch Complex 34, Cape Canaveral, FL; (2) cosolvent flushing, surfactant flushing, cosolvent DNAPL mobilization, complex sugar flushing, and AS/SVE for PCE at Dover AFB, DE; (3) surfactant-enhanced aquifer remediation for chlorinated solvent contamination (primarily TCE) at Hill AFB, UT; (4) thermally enhanced remediation of fractured bedrock with steam injection for multiple contaminants, primarily PCE and TCE in the quarry site at Loring AFB, Limestone, ME; and (5) cosolvent flushing and enhanced bioremediation for PCE at Sages Drycleaners in Jacksonville, FL.
TCE Removal from Contaminated Soil and Ground Water: Ground Water Issue
H.H. Russell, J.E. Matthews, and G.W. Sewell.
EPA 540-S-92-002, 10 pp, 1992.
Technology Evaluation Report: Technologies for Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquid Source Zone Remediation
John C. Fountain.
Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center, TE-98-02, 70 pp, 1998.
Bioaugmentation for Remediation of Chlorinated Solvents: Technology Development, Status, and Research Needs
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). 126 pp, Oct 2005
This white paper reviews the state of bioaugmentation science at the present time, summarizes the current status of this rapidly evolving innovative technology, identifies the key issues confronting the science, and evaluates the lessons learned from current practical applications. This technology 'snapshot' may be useful to remedial project managers faced with selecting, designing, and implementing a bioaugmentation strategy.
Bioenhanced In-Well Vapor Stripping (BEHIVS) to Treat Trichloroethylene
Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). 75 pp, 2003.
An in-well vapor stripper and two biotreatment wells were installed near a TCE-contaminated "hot spot" zone at Edwards AFB for an August-December 2001 technology demonstration. In-well vapor stripping and in situ aerobic cometabolic bioremediation were combined to address a TCE source area without bringing contaminated ground water to the surface.
Bioremediation Systems at Beale Growing, Getting Better
Centerviews, Vol 14 No 1, p 6-7, Spring 2008
Beale AFB, CA, has enhanced in situ bioremediation (EISB) systems in 2 areas to address groundwater contaminated with TCE. The systems combine in situ biostimulation using food-grade injectants and bioaugmentation using Dehalococcoides bacteria in KB-1. One system is achieving successful reductions in contaminant levels, and the other system is new. These combined bioremediation processes can take several years to achieve the cleanup goal, depending on groundwater conditions, distribution of the electron donor, and initial solvent concentrations.
Case Histories from Eight Years of Successful Testing and Remediation Using Aerobic Soy Based Co-Metabolism for Removal of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons from Groundwater
D. Blackert and J. Cibrik.
The Business of Brownfields: 2009 Conference Proceedings, 15-17 April, Pittsburgh, PA. 8 pp, 2009
Aerobic cometabolism approaches—which combine air sparging, liquid/liquid extraction, and biological cometabolism—have been employed successfully at more than 10 field pilot- and full-scale implementations for remediation of halogenated hydrocarbons (TCE, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform) plus other hydrocarbons and fluorocarbons in groundwater, achieving 'no further action' approval at several sites. A soy methyl ester and a biodegradable surfactant blend has been used extensively for full-scale field application. The cases include a 2003 Kansas City pilot test to address TCE and DCE, followed by full-scale remediation in 2004.
DCE Stall Tool
U.S. Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Environmental Restoration Technology Transfer, Multimedia Training Tools website.
The reductive dechlorination of perchloroethene (PCE) and trichloroethene (TCE) yields dichloroethene (DCE), vinyl chloride (VC), and ethene. When the reductive dechlorination process is incomplete, the levels of DCE and VC in ground water can build up over time. This process is referred to as DCE stall, and it can limit the ability to meet cleanup goals and obtain site closure. This training tool discusses the suspected causes of DCE stall, along with potential solutions for this problem. DCE stall is typically caused by insufficient electron donor to achieve strongly reducing conditions. Under less reducing conditions, the DCE concentrations in ground water may accumulate without the apparent accumulation of VC, ethene, or ethane. At these sites, biological activity may be hindered by lack of sufficient electron donor or affected by pH, the presence of biotoxins, micronutrient limitations, and other factors. It also is possible that the expected products of VC and ethene are not formed because microbial oxidation or abiotic pathways are dominant (e.g., DCE transformation directly to carbon dioxide). All of these factors should be carefully considered before exploring a biostimulation or bioaugmentation approach at a given site.
Demonstration of Biodegradation of Dense, Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids (DNAPL) Through Biostimulation and Bioaugmentation at Launch Complex 34 in Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida: Final Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
A. Gavaskar, W-S. Yoon, M. Gaberell, E. Drescher, L. Cumming, J. Sminchak, J. Hicks, B. Buxton, M. Morara, T. Wilk, and R. Copley.
EPA 540-R-07-007, 103 pp, 2004
The demonstration to evaluate the technical and cost performance of the bioremediation technologies when applied to a TCE DNAPL source zone began in June 2002 and ended in February 2003. Sequential application of biostimulation (ethanol as electron donor) and bioaugmentation (the KB-1 consortium) was evaluated in the same small test plot beneath a building. The treatments significantly decreased total TCE and DNAPL mass in the target treatment zone.
Development of a Design Tool for Planning Aqueous Amendment Injection Systems: User's Guide
R.C. Borden, M. Clayton, A.M. Weispfenning, T. Simpkin, and M.T. Lieberman.
ESTCP, Project ER-0626, 76 pp, 2008
This design tool is intended to assist with the design of injection systems for distributing emulsified edible oils to stimulate in situ anaerobic bioremediation of groundwater contaminants. A variety of compounds can be biodegraded anaerobically using emulsified oils. For PCE, TCE, perchlorate, and nitrate, this process is relatively well understood and has been demonstrated; however, the factors controlling contaminant biodegradation are much less well understood for compounds such as Freons and chlorinated ethanes and methanes. See also a slide presentation: Planning and Design of Emulsified Oil Injection Systems.
The Effect of Concentrated Electron Donors on the Solubility of Trichloroethene
E. Hood, D. Major, and G. Driedger.
Ground Water Monitoring & Remediation, Vol 27 No 4, p 93-98, 2007
Although recent vendor claims suggest that the addition of highly concentrated electron donor solutions to increase the aqueous solubility of TCE during enhanced in situ bioremediation is a significant mechanism of contaminant mass removal, the results of experimental measurements of the solubility of TCE in aqueous solution with 8 typical electron donors suggest that due to the small changes in TCE solubility in comparison to the high electron donor concentrations employed, it is difficult to envision circumstances justifying the use of a high electron donor concentration to enhance TCE solubility as part of a bioremediation strategy, though the use of more concentrated (e.g., 50 to 95%) ethanol solutions would be appropriate for cosolvent flooding.
Enhanced In-Situ Anaerobic Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents at LF-08, Whiteman Air Force Base, Missouri
Federal Remediation Technologies Roundtable Cost and Performance Database, 2007
Final Report for the Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation Pilot Test, Bountiful/Woods Cross Superfund Site, Bountiful, Utah
Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, CO. 66 pp, 2006
This biostimulation/bioaugmentation pilot study to address TCE contamination involved a side-by-side comparison in 3 test cells of 3 different bioremediation substrates: sodium lactate, chitin, and emulsified soybean oil. Following the first round of substrate injection and sampling, all 3 test cells were inoculated with a commercially available dechlorinating culture containing Dehalococcoides ethenogenes. Based on the results of the pilot test, full-scale enhanced anaerobic bioremediation was selected for the site's 2006 Record of Decision. Emulsified oil is recommended as the electron donor.
Impact of Landfill Closure Designs on Long-Term Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: ESTCP Cost and Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0019, 47 pp, 2008
A 24-month pilot-scale field demonstration of a recirculation bioreactor at Landfill 3, Altus AFB, OK, was undertaken to show that a combination of organic material addition and accelerated leaching can rapidly reduce source area concentrations of CAHs (TCE) in groundwater at unlined, closed landfills. A 30-ft x 30-ft x 11-ft-deep portion of the landfill near the suspected TCE source area was excavated and backfilled with a mixture of mulch and sand. A groundwater extraction trench was excavated into the shallow aquifer downgradient of the reactor cell and backfilled with gravel. Groundwater from the trench was extracted and distributed within the bioreactor cell using a drip irrigation system. The bioreactor removal efficiencies for TCE and total chlorinated ethenes from recirculated groundwater ranged from 97 to 100% and 76 to 96%, respectively. Because of a continuing TCE source upgradient of the bioreactor and the accumulation of daughter products in the aquifer beneath and adjacent to the bioreactor, the objective of reducing CAH concentrations by 90% was not achieved. The cost analysis indicates that because the mulch bioreactor technology has the potential for high costs to be incurred, depending on the size of the source area and the type of waste encountered, this treatment approach may be appropriate for well-defined, small, isolated source areas marked by shallow groundwater but not for large landfills with multiple source areas.
In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Ethene: DNAPL Source Zones
Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC), Bioremediation of DNAPLs Team. BioDNAPL-3, 138 pp, June 2008
This publication systematically lays out the technical and related regulatory considerations for in situ bioremediation (ISB) of chlorinated ethene dense DNAPL source zones, providing information related to site characterization requirements, treatment system application and design criteria, process monitoring, and process optimization. The ability of ISB technology to enhance the dissolution and desorption of nonaqueous-phase contaminants to the aqueous phase, where they can be degraded by the microbial population, depends on the spatial distribution of DNAPL mass in the subsurface (e.g., pool/ganglia ratio) and the ability to deliver amendments throughout this architecture.
In-Situ Substrate Addition to Create Reactive Zones for Treatment of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: ESTCP Cost and Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), CU-9920, 93 pp, Mar 2007
Demonstrations of enhanced reductive dechlorination (ERD) were conducted at two Air Force bases--Vandeberg and Hanscom--to show the ability of this bioremediation approach to dechlorinate TCE plumes in the subsurface over a relatively short time period and to gather information for estimating long-term treatment effectiveness, life span, and costs.
In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvent Source Areas with Enhanced Mass Transfer
T. Macbeth, and K. Sorenson.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0218, 396 pp, 2008
A demonstration of enhanced mass transfer of chloroethenes from DNAPL to groundwater during in situ bioremediation of TCE was conducted at the Fort Lewis Logistics Center East Gate Disposal Yard (EGDY) using the Bioavailability Enhancement Technology?, or B.E.T.(tm). For the first time at the field scale, this demonstration provided rigorous documentation of the electron donor (whey) concentration-dependence of enhanced mass transfer of chlorinated solvents in a source area. In 2 hydraulically isolated treatment cells, each consisting of a network of monitoring wells, an injection well, and an extraction well, anaerobic reductive dechlorination occurred concurrently with enhanced mass transfer and resulted in rapid source strength reduction. The rapid effect on downgradient contaminant flux observed at the Ft. Lewis site might be a best-case scenario owing to the high ambient groundwater flow rates.
Demonstration of Bioaugmentation at Kelly AFB, TX
2004. B. Alleman, M. Place, and D. Major. AFRL-ML-TY-TR-2004-4530, 155 pp.
This report describes an application of the KB-1 culture to remediate TCE contamination at Kelly AFB.
Demonstration of Bioaugmentation at Kelly AFB, Texas: ESTCP Cost And Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-9914, 42 pp, 2007
After augmentation of the aquifer with KB-1™ (a prepared culture of halorespiring bacteria) to address PCE, TCE, and their degradation products, complete dechlorination of PCE to ethene was observed.
Engineered Approaches to In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents: Fundamentals and Field Applications
U.S. EPA, Technology Innovation Office.
EPA 542-R-00-008, 144 pp, July 2000.
Contact: Linda Fiedler, fiedler.linda@epa.gov
Evaluation of Performance And Costs Associated With Anaerobic Dechlorination Techniques. Phase I Site Survey
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). Rev. 2, 135 pp, 2002.
The objective of this report is to summarize relevant performance and cost data on various engineered approaches to stimulate in situ anaerobic dechlorination (biologically-driven reductive degradation) of chlorinated compounds, such as TCE.
Field Push-Pull Test Protocol for Aerobic Cometabolism of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
Y. Kim, M. Azizian, J. Istok, and L. Semprini.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program, 83 pp, 2005
This protocol describes a newly developed field technology--the single-well push-pull test--for evaluating the feasibility of using in situ aerobic cometabolic processes to treat ground water contaminated with chlorinated solvent mixtures.
Fluidized-Bed Adsorption Bioreactor for the Treatment of Groundwater Contaminated with Solvents at Low Concentration
Paul H. Miyares, Cynthia V. Teeter, and C. James Martel.
Special Report 99-1, 20 pp, 1999.
Focused Engineering Evaluation/Cost Analysis, Groundwater Plumes Interim Corrective Measure, Former Air Force Plant PJKS, Waterton Canyon, Colorado. Revision 1
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha District, 52 pp, 2005.
In 2003 at PJKS, a bedrock pilot study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of in situ anaerobic biodegradation of TCE and NDMA in bedrock source areas by the introduction of sodium lactate.
In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Ethene DNAPL Source Zones: Case Studies
2007
This report was published by the Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). As part of its strategic approach, the ITRC BioDNAPL's Team determined that an independent evaluation of the status of bioremediation was needed, that review of a .data rich. set of case studies would be the best evaluation approach, and that a forum would be an appropriate setting for the process. The team gathered and evaluated a number of proposed case studies and selected a group of six that would demonstrate bioremediation of DNAPLs in a wide range of conditions. The selected case studies can be classified as demonstrations, pilot-scale tests, those in design, and full-scale cleanups.
In-Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Hydrocarbons: an Assessment of Projects in California
California Department of Toxic Substances Control, Office of Pollution Prevention and Technology Development.
OPPTD Document No. 1217, 163 pp, 2006.
During an evaluation of the performance of in situ bioremediation (ISB) systems at 5 sites in California, the reviewers observed several recurring issues. The project case studies illustrate the reviewers' recommendations for avoiding common ISB problems.
In Situ Bioremediation of DNAPL Source Zones
37 pp, Aug 2005
This document was prepared by Lisa Moretti, a National Network of Environmental Management studies grantee, under a fellowship from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. The objective of this report is to provide an overview of in situ bioremediation of DNAPL source areas. This report discusses the integral steps when implementing bioremediation, such as site characterization, design considerations, and post-treatment monitoring. In addition, this report also examines the use of bioremediation as a polishing treatment for the source zone. Case studies are included as examples of the use of bioremediation as a stand-alone and a polishing treatment for DNAPL source areas.
In-Situ Substrate Addition to Create Reactive Zones for Treatment of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: ESTCP Cost and Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-9920, 93 pp, 2007
In-Situ Substrate Addition to Create Reactive Zones for Treatment of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Hanscom Air Force Base
C.C. Lutes, V. D'Amato, A. Frizzell, M. Hansen, G. Gordon, P. Palmer, and S. Suthersan.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), 431 pp, 2003.
The active treatment phase of the demonstration took place from October 2000 to October 2002, during which time 47 injections conducted in a single injection well delivered 1,250 gallons of raw blackstrap molasses, 11,250 gallons of dilution water, 7,575 gallons of push water, and 4,732 grams of potassium bromide. Monitoring was conducted during the demonstration to gauge technology effectiveness, describe changes in biogeochemical conditions, and gather process monitoring feedback.
In-Situ Substrate Addition to Create Reactive Zones for Treatment of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: Vandenberg Air Force Base
C.C. Lutes, A. Frizzell, B. Molnaa, and P. Palmer.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). 335 pp, 2004.
This report documents an evaluation of the efficacy of the In-Situ Reactive Zone/Enhanced Reductive Dechlorination (IRZ/ERD) technology in removing TCE from impacted ground water in a range of geologic conditions and TCE concentrations. Active molasses-based treatment from February 2001 to April 2003 provided an opportunity to evaluate IRZ at a site that was initially highly aerobic, with minimal evidence of natural attenuation of TCE.
Operation and Analysis of the BEHIVS System at Edwards Air Force Base
P.L. McCarty, S.M. Gorelick, M.N. Goltz, G.D. Hopkins, and F.-J. Eisenberg.
Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP). 109 pp, 2003.
This report summarizes the results of operation of the bioenhanced in-well vapor stripping (BEHIVS) system at Edwards AFB in 2001, numerical modeling analysis of the results, study conclusions, and recommendations for application of the BEHIVS system at other sites.
Overview of In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Ethene DNAPL Source Zones
The Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC) Bioremediation of DNAPLs Team.
BioDNAPL-1, 89 pp, 2005.
Pilot-Scale Demonstration of a Two-Stage Methanotrophic Bioreactor for Biodegradation of Trichloroethene in Groundwater: Emerging Technology Summary
U.S. EPA, Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program.
EPA 540-S-93-505, 5 pp, 1993.
Push-Pull Tests for Evaluating the Aerobic Cometabolism of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons: ESTCP Cost and Performance Report
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program, NTIS: ADA468544, 46 pp, 2006
Single-well push/pull test methods were demonstrated at Fort Lewis Logistics Center (using toluene as a cometabolic growth substrate) and McClellan AFB (during cometabolic air sparging with propane as a growth substrate) to determine (1) the transport characteristics of nutrients, substrates, and CAHs and their transformation products; (2) the capability of indigenous microorganisms to utilize selected substrates and transform targeted contaminants and surrogate compounds; (3) the rates of substrate utilization and contaminant transformation; and (4) the combinations of injected nutrients and substrates that maximize rates of contaminant transformation.
Principles and Practices of Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents
2004. Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence (AFCEE), 457 pp.
This document was published by the Air Force, Navy and the DoD Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). The objective of this Principles and Practices document is to describe the state of the practice of enhanced anaerobic bioremediation. The scientific basis of enhanced anaerobic bioremediation is explained, and relevant site selection, design, and performance criteria for various engineered approaches in current practice are discussed
Protocol for Enhanced In Situ Bioremediation Using Emulsified Edible Oil
Robert Borden, Solutions-IES.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program, 100 pp, May 2006
A Review of Biofouling Controls for Enhanced In Situ Bioremediation of Groundwater
Environmental Security & Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0429, 62 pp, 2005
Technical and Regulatory Requirements for Enhanced In Situ Bioremediation of Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). ISB-6, 122 pp, 1998.
Technical Protocol for Using Soluble Carbohydrates to Enhance Reductive Dechlorination of Chlorinated Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
S.S. Suthersan, C.C. Lutes, P.L. Palmer, F. Lenzo, F.C. Payne, D.S. Liles, and J. Burdick.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). 173 pp, 2002.
This protocol provides guidance for successful site selection and application of enhanced reductive dechlorination (ERD) technology for remediation of chlorinated hydrocarbons through stimulation by soluble carbohydrates. The ERD technology (patented by ARCADIS) stimulates indigenous microbiological organisms through the engineered addition of electron donors (e.g., molasses, whey, high-fructose corn syrup, lactate, butyrate, benzoate) that contain degradable organic carbon sources.
Workplan for Enhanced In-Situ Bioremediation Pilot Test for Former Intel Facility, 365 Middlefield Road, Mountain View, California
Weiss Associates. Northeast Mountain View Advisory Council, 240 pp, 2005
In a feasibility study that investigated the remediation potential of in situ bioremediation with Hydrogen Release Compound (HRC), in situ bioremediation with Newman Zone emulsified edible oil, in situ chemical oxidation using permanganate, expansion of the existing ground water extraction and treatment system, and excavation of impacted saturated soils, in situ bioremediation with emulsified oil was identified as the most appropriate remedial option for reducing chlorinated hydrocarbons in the ground water of the Intel facility site.
Electrokinetics: Technology Overview Report
Liesbet Van Cauwenberghe.
Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center, TO-97-03, 21 pp, 1997.
Innovative Technology Summary Report: Lasagna™ Soil Remediation
U.S. DOE, 19 pp, 1996.
Flushing Technologies (Cosolvent/Alcohol Flooding, Surfactant Flushing)
AATDF Technology Practices Manual for Surfactants and Cosolvents
Advanced Applied Technology Demonstration Facility for Environmental Technology (AATDF) Program, TR-97-2, 1997.
Cyclodextrin-Enhanced
In Situ Removal of Organic Contaminants From Groundwater at Department
of Defense Sites. Cost and Performance Report
2004. Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP) Project CU-0113, 101 pp.
In-Situ Decontamination of Sand and Gravel Aquifers by Chemically Enhanced Solubilization of Multiple-Compound DNAPLs with Surfactant Solutions: Phase 1?Laboratory and Pilot Field-Scale Testing and Phase 2?Solubilization Test and Partitioning and Interwell Tracer Tests
U.S. DOE, Washington, DC. DOE/MC/29111-01, 625 pp, 1997.
Manual of Subsurface Restoration: Contaminant Flushing With Surfactants and Cosolvents
Donald M. Lowe, (ed.).
Ann Arbor Press, ISBN: 1575041081, 1998.
Surfactant-Enhanced Aquifer Remediation (SEAR) Design Manual
Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center. NFESC Technical Report TR-2206-ENV, 110 pp, 2002.
Surfactant-Enhanced Aquifer Remediation (SEAR) Implementation Manual
Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center. NFESC Technical Report TR-2219-ENV54, 54 pp, 2003.
Surfactant-Enhanced DNAPL Remediation: Surfactant Selection, Hydraulic Efficiency, and Economic Factors
D.A. Sabatini, R.C. Knox, J.H. Harwell.
EPA 600-S-96-002, 15 pp, 1996.
Surfactants and Cosolvents for NAPL Remediation: a Technology Practices Manual
D.F. Lowe, C.L. Oubre, C.H. Ward (eds.).
Lewis Publications, Boca Raton, FL. ISBN: 0-8493-4117-5. 448 pp, 1999.
Technical and Regulatory Guidance for Surfactant/Cosolvent Flushing of DNAPL Source Zones
Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC). DNAPLs-3, 151 pp, 2003.
Technology Overview Report: In Situ Flushing
Diane S. Roote.
Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center (GWRTAC). TO-97-02, 24 pp, 1997.
Technology Status Report: In Situ Flushing
Diane S. Roote.
Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Analysis Center (GWRTAC). TS-98-01, 212 pp, 1998
Well Injection Depth Extraction (Wide) Soil Flushing. Innovative Technology Summary Report
U.S. DOE, Ohio Field Office, Ashtabula Environmental Management Project, Ashtabula, OH.
DOE/EM-0577, 30 pp, 2001.
Case Study Comparison of Multiple Activation Methods for Sodium Persulfate ISCO Treatment
G. Cronk.
Sixth International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, May 19-22, 2008, Monterey, California. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH. 8 pp, 200
Six brief in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) case studies (full and pilot scale) from sites in California illustrate the use of different methods--hydrogen peroxide, ferrous or chelated iron, alkaline conditions (high pH)--for persulfate activation. Good to excellent contaminant reductions (generally >85%) were achieved in all 6 cases for contaminants such as 1,4-dioxane and chlorinated solvents (2), a mixed chlorinated solvent plume (1), methylene chloride DNAPL (1), gasoline-range hydrocarbons (1), and benzene (1).
Engineering Evaluation/Cost Analysis: Properties Immediately Adjacent to Marina Cliffs/Northwestern Barrel Site South Milwaukee, Wisconsin
U.S. EPA Region 5, 136 pp, 2006
This report contains information on the implementation and results of a full-scale in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) pilot study conducted using the BIOX(r) technology in three areas affected by benzene, PCE, TCE, vinyl chloride, and xylenes.
Engineering Issue Paper: In Situ Chemical Oxidation
EPA 600-R-06-072, 2006
This issue paper was produced by the EPA Risk Management Research Laboratory and the Engineering Forum. It provides an up-to-date overview of ISCO remediation technology and fundamentals, and is developed based on peer-reviewed literature, EPA reports, web sources, current research, conference proceedings, and other pertinent information.
Expediting Cleanup of a Pump and Treat Site by Use of Chemical Oxidation Technology
G. Cronk and L. Stevens.
Sixth International Conference on Remediation of Chlorinated and Recalcitrant Compounds, May 19-22, 2008. Battelle Press, Columbus, OH. 11 pp, 2008
At the U.S. Gypsum Company site in La Mirada, CA, a pump-and-treat system has operated for over 10 years (1996 to 2006), successfully reducing the size of two co-mingled contaminant plumes, one with benzene and one with dissolved-phase TCE. To expedite this cleanup, two ISCO technologies were implemented. For the TCE plume, a pilot test using potassium permanganate achieved TCE reductions ranging from 85 to 100% in 120 days, and a full-scale permanganate treatment is planned to address the remaining TCE plume. For the benzene plume, injections of catalyzed hydrogen peroxide and activated sodium persulfate resulted in a reduction in benzene concentrations from a pre-ISCO maximum of 5,500 µg/L to 98 µg/L, a 98% reduction. Other wells have shown benzene reductions from 96 to 99.9%.
Focused In-Situ Chemical Oxidation of Chlorinated VOCs and 1,4-Dioxane Using Sodium Persulfate in Fine-Grained Soils
K.S. Houston, J. Horst, and G. Wroblewski.
Pollution Engineering, 8 pp, Mar 2009
At a former machining and metal working site where the groundwater is affected by PCE, TCE, 1,1-DCE, and 1,4-dioxane, focused ISCO using sodium persulfate was considered for discrete source mass treatment to expedite mass removal and decrease the operational timeframe, but lab treatability tests indicated that strategic oxidant dosing would achieve the remediation goal. In a field pilot test, effective 1,4-dioxane and VOC treatment was achieved, likely the result of naturally occurring reduced metals (e.g., ferrous iron) that facilitated sulfate radical formation, which also showed that oxidant field loading based solely on lab-determined total oxidant demand of site soil and groundwater slurries can overstate the mass of oxidant required to achieve effective treatment.
Improved Understanding of Fenton-Like Reactions for the In Situ Remediation of Contaminated Groundwater, Including Treatment of Sorbed Contaminants and Destruction of DNAPLs
R.J. Watts, F.J. Loge, and A.L. Teel.
Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program (SERDP), 276 pp, 2006
Investigation of the processes and mechanisms associated with the use of catalyzed hydrogen peroxide propagations (CHP, or modified Fenton's reagent) for ISCO shows that superoxide has a major role in the degradation of highly oxidized contaminants, the destruction of DNAPLs, and the enhanced desorption of hydrophobic contaminants from soils and subsurface solids. The suite of reactive oxygen species generated in CHP reactions, including hydroxyl radical, superoxide, and the strong nucleophile hydroperoxide, provide a near-universal treatment matrix for chemical contaminants. This report discusses the applicability of modified Fenton's to the destruction of carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, benzo[a]pyrene, hexadecane, 1,1,1-TCA, 1,2-DCA, PCE, and TCE.
Innovative Technology Summary Report: In Situ Chemical Oxidation Using Potassium Permanganate
U.S. DOE. DOE/EM-0496, 35 pp, 1999.
In Situ Chemical Oxidation Multimedia Training Tool
U.S. Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Environmental Restoration Technology Transfer, Multimedia Training Tools website, 23 pp.
A variety of toxic organics, including dense nonaqueous-phase liquid (DNAPL), are amenable to destruction or at least partial degradation through chemical oxidation processes initiated by the application of compounds such as potassium permanganate or Fenton's reagent. The most recent advances in the understanding of the application of in situ chemical oxidation (ISCO) for ground-water remediation are presented through this multimedia training tool.
Principles and Practices of In Situ Chemical Oxidation Using Permanganate
R.L. Siegrist, M.A. Urynowicz, O.R. West, M.L. Crimi, K.S. Lowe.
Battelle Press, Columbus, OH, ISBN:1-57477-102-7, 336 pp, 2001.
Technical and Regulatory Guidance for In Situ Chemical Oxidation of Contaminated Soil and Groundwater
Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC). ISCO-1, 71 pp, 2001.
Technology Evaluation Report: In Situ Chemical Treatment
Yujun Yin and Herbert E. Allen.
Ground-Water Remediation Technologies Center (GWRTAC). TE-99-01, 82 pp, 1999.
Technology Status Review: In Situ Oxidation
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Arlington, VA. 50 pp, 1999.
In situ oxidation involves injection of strong oxidants such as hydrogen peroxide or potassium permanganate into the contaminated subsurface, in some cases with other chemicals that function as catalysts. The oxidants chemically break down CVOCs upon contact to inert materials such as carbon dioxide, chloride, and water.
Tucson International Airport Area Superfund Site
U.S. EPA Region 9 Fact Sheet, 2008
The site contains 7 major project areas: Air Force Plant 44 (AFP 44, operated by Raytheon Missile Systems Company), Tucson Airport Remediation Project (TARP), the Airport Property, the Arizona Air National Guard (AANG) 162nd facility, Texas Instruments, Inc. (formerly Burr-Brown Corporation), the former West-Cap property, and West Plume B. The groundwater COCs include TCE, DCE, chloroform, and chromium, and PCBs and metals have been found in some of the site soils. In 2002, 1,4-dioxane was discovered in several project areas. In July 2008, the Air Force installed an advanced oxidation process (AOP) treatment system for 1,4-dioxane. The AOP system injects hydrogen peroxide and ozone at multiple points into the mixing chamber with the contaminated water. The reaction of the water and chemicals together rids the contaminated water of both 1,4-dioxane and TCE. The addition of the new system will ensure TARP continues to meet its goal of no more than 3 ppb of 1,4-dioxane in drinking water. The TARP treatment plant has been in operation since 1994, using air stripping technology and carbon filtration to remove TCE from the groundwater. As of March 2008, 29.5 billion gallons of water have been cleaned and 3,557 pounds of TCE have been removed. This system provides clean drinking water to 50,000 residents of Tucson.
XPERT Design and Diagnostics' (XDD) In Situ Chemical Oxidation Process Using Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4): Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH.
EPA 540-R-07-005, 96 pp, 2007
Describes an evaluation of the XDD ISCO process using potassium permanganate at a site in Hudson, NH, to address chlorinated volatile organics, including PCE, TCE, cDCE, 1,1,1-TCA, and 1,1-DCA.
Cost and Performance Report: Nanoscale Zero-Valent Iron Technologies for Source Remediation
A. Gavaskar, L. Tatar, and W. Condit.
Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center, Port Hueneme, CA. CR-05-007-ENV, 54 pp, 2005.
This cost and performance report is the result of a comparative evaluation of the performance of zero-valent iron injection at three Navy sites: Hunters Point Shipyard (micron-scale particles), and Naval Air Station Jacksonville and Naval Air Engineering Station Lakehurst (nanoscale particles).
Demonstration of In Situ Dehalogenation of DNAPL Through Injection of Emulsified Zero-Valent Iron at Launch Complex 34 in Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida: Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
A. Gavaskar, W.-S. Yoon, M. Gaberell, E. Drescher, L. Cumming, J. Sminchak, J. Hicks, B. Buxton, M. Morara, T. Wilk, and L. Bahn.
EPA 540-R-07-006, 223 pp, 2004
The field demonstration of emulsified zero-valent iron (EZVI) technology for treatment of a TCE DNAPL source zone began at Launch Complex 34 in June 2002 and ended in January 2003. Long-term ground-water monitoring results collected in December 2003 and March 2004 indicate that the EZVI treatment had a long-lasting effect on the chlorinated contaminants in the subsurface. TCE, cis-1,2-DCE, and (eventually) VC levels declined sharply in the one year following EZVI injection, and ethene levels increased substantially.
Nanoscale Zero Valent Iron Training Tool
U.S. Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, Environmental Restoration Technology Transfer, Multimedia Training Tools website, 32 pp.
Zero-valent iron (ZVI) is a strong reducing agent. Nanoscale iron particles typically have surface areas up to 30 times greater than larger-sized granular iron and are up to 1,000 times more reactive for the degradation of chlorinated organic compounds. NZVI is ideally suited for treating chlorinated organic compounds and dense nonaqueous-phase liquid (DNAPL) "hot spots" through injection directly into the source area of contamination. A slurry of NZVI can be distributed into the subsurface using a variety of carrying fluids that help the iron powders disperse into the subsurface and create contact between the contaminants and the iron particles. This training tool discusses injection methods, specific aspects of implementation, NZVI economics, advantages and limitations of the technology, and lessons learned.
Advancing the Science of Natural and Enhanced Attenuation for Chlorinated Solvents
B.B. Looney, et al.
WSRC-STI-2006-00377, 79 pp, 2006
This document describes the concept of using mass balance as a central framework for attenuation-based remedies and identifies technical contributions to support its use. References to both project documents and pertinent publications in the open literature are provided as sources of technical details.
Characterization and Monitoring of Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents in Ground Water: A Systems Approach, Revision 1
Tyler Gilmore (PNNL); B.B. Looney (SRNL); et al.
WSRC-STI-2006-00084, 65 pp, Aug 2006
Commonly Asked Questions Regarding the Use of Natural Attenuation for Chlorinated Solvent Spills at Federal Facilities
U.S. EPA, Air Force, Army, Navy, and Coast Guard, [undated].
Compatibility of Alternative Chlorinated Solvent Source Treatment Strategies with Monitored Natural Attenuation
2004. Brian B. Looney and Karen M. Vangelas. WSRC-MS-2004-00236, 22 pp.
Draft Technical Protocol for Characterizing Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvent Ground-Water Plumes Discharging into Wetlands
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program, ESTCP Project CU-9913, 53 pp, 2006
A Decision Flowchart for the Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation and Enhanced Attenuation at Sites with Chlorinated Organic Plumes
Interstate Technology & Regulatory Council (ITRC) Enhanced Attenuation/Chlorinated Organics Team. 13 pp, 2007
The flowchart provides a mechanism for transitioning sites through the remediation process, supports decision-making by regulators and site managers, and can be used to determine site remedial change from MNA to active remediation through enhanced attenuation (EA) technologies. EA is a plume remediation strategy to achieve ground-water restoration goals by providing a "bridge" between MNA and more aggressive methods.
Field-Scale Evaluation of Monitored Natural Attenuation for Dissolved Chlorinated Solvent Plumes
AFCEE, 455 pp, 2009
This report 1) presents a strategy and framework for quantitatively assessing the sustainability of MNA-based remedies for groundwater at chlorinated solvent-impacted sites, 2) provides case-study reviews using existing long-term monitoring data sets from multiple U.S. Air Force sites where chlorinated solvents exceed closure criteria, and 3) summarizes observations and recommendations that were developed when working through the case study examples. The 3 principal components of the sustainability assessment framework described in this report are analysis of plume stability, estimation of remediation timeframes, and estimation of the longevity of specific chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbon degradation processes.
Historical
and Retrospective Survey of Monitored Natural Attenuation: Lines of
Inquiry Supporting Monitored Natural Attenuation and Enhanced Passive
Remediation of Chlorinated Solvents
2004. T.M. McGuire, C.J. Newell, B.B. Looney, and K.M. Vangelas. WSRC-TR-2003-00333, Rev. 1, 96 pp.
Natural and Enhanced Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents Using RT3D
C.D. Johnson, M.J. Truex, and T.P. Clement.
PNNL-15937, 77 pp, 2006
This document describes the context for applying RT3D (Reactive Transport in 3 Dimensions) to monitored natural attenuation of chlorinated solvent contamination in ground water. It also discusses dechlorination reactions that may occur and the general approach for using RT3D reaction modules (including a summary of the RT3D reaction modules that are available) to model fate and transport of chlorinated solvents as part of MNA or for combinations of MNA and selected types of active remediation.
Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvent Ground-Water Plumes Discharging into Wetlands
M.M. Lorah, D.R. Burris, and L.J. Dyer.
U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2004-5220, 203 pp, 2005
Section 4 of this report introduces the "Draft Technical Protocol for Characterizing Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvent Ground-Water Plumes Discharging into Wetlands" as an addendum to AFCEE's 1996 Chlorinated Solvent Natural Attenuation Protocol.
Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater: Principles and Practices
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). ISB-3, 123 pp, 1999.
Proceedings of the Symposium on Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Organics in Ground Water
EPA 540-R-97-504, 198 pp, 1997.
Scenarios Evaluation Tool for Chlorinated Solvent MNA
M.J. Truex, C.J. Newell, B.B. Looney, and K.M. Vangelas.
WSRC-STI-2006-00096, Revision 2, 194 pp, 2007
This approach presents a framework that links the MNA evaluation and associated decision logic to key site characteristics and known NA phenomena. The tool consists of a user's guide and 13 scenarios built around general site and hydrogeologic conditions.
Technical Protocol for Evaluating Natural Attenuation of Chlorinated Solvents in Groundwater
U.S. EPA, Office of Research and Development.
EPA 600-R-98-128, 248 pp, 1998.
Contact: John T. Wilson, wilson.johnt@epa.gov
Use of Monitored Natural Attenuation at Superfund, RCRA Corrective Action, and Underground Storage Tank Sites
EPA 9200.4-17P, 41 pp, 1999.
Contact: Hal White, white.hal@epa.gov
Attenuated Anaerobic Dechlorination of Groundwater Using HRC®. Mactec - Harding ESE: Demonstration Bulletin
U.S. EPA, Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH.
EPA 540-R-08-003, 2 pp, 2008
An in situ PRB was designed that utilizes Hydrogen Release Compound (HRC®) to treat ground water contaminated with chlorinated compounds. A demonstration of this technology was conducted in 2000 near the Fisherville Mill brownfields site in South Grafton, MA, to determine its effectiveness in eliminating TCE and daughter products from the ground water. The cleanup criteria were not achieved at the downgradient monitoring wells over a period of 2 years despite extensive conversion of TCE to DCE.
Development of Permeable Reactive Barriers (PRB) Using Edible Oils
R.C. Borden.
SERDP Project ER-1205, 159 pp, 2008
A detailed field pilot test was conducted to evaluate the use of an emulsified oil biobarrier to enhance the in situ anaerobic biodegradation of perchlorate and chlorinated solvents in groundwater. The biobarrier was installed by injecting 380 L of commercially available soybean oil-in-water emulsion through 10 direct-push injection wells over a 2-day period. Field monitoring results over a 2.5 year period following emulsion injection indicates the oil injection generated strongly reducing conditions in the oil-treated zone with depletion of dissolved oxygen, nitrate, and sulfate, and increases in dissolved iron, manganese, and methane. Perchlorate at 3,100 to 20,000 µg/L was degraded to below detection (<4 µg/L) in the injection and nearby monitor wells within 5 days of injection. Two years after the single emulsion injection, perchlorate was less than 6 µg/L in every downgradient well compared to an average upgradient concentration of 13,100 µg/L. Emulsion injection stimulated reductive dechlorination of 1,1,1-TCA, PCE, and TCE during groundwater migration through the biobarrier but did not reduce them to target treatment levels.
Electrically Induced Redox Barriers for Treatment of Groundwater
T. Sale, M. Petersen, and D. Gilbert.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), CU-0112, NTIS: ADA438421, 187 pp, 2005
Closely spaced permeable electrodes can be installed through a ground-water contaminant plume in the format of a permeable reactive barrier, called an e-barrier. An e-barrier was installed at F.E. Warren Air Force Base in August 2002 in the path of a shallow alluvial TCE plume. This report documents results from a three-year collaboration between ESTCP and Colorado State University on the development and testing of this innovative electrolytic approach for managing redox-sensitive contaminants in ground water.
Electronically Induced Redox Barriers for Treatment of Groundwater at F.E. Warren Air Force Base, Wyoming (2007)
Federal Remediation Technology Roundtable, Cost & Performance Case Study Database.
Final Design Guidance for Application of Permeable Reactive Barriers for Groundwater Remediation
Gavaskar, A., N. Gupta, B. Sass, R. Janosy, and J. Hicks.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Arlington, VA. 247 pp, 2000.
In Situ Permeable Reactive Barrier for the Treatment of Hexavalent Chromium and Trichloroethylene in Ground Water:
Contact: David W. Blowes, blowes@sciborg.uwaterloo.ca
Volume 1. Design and Installation, EPA 600-R-99-095A, 128 pp., 1999
Volume 2. Performance Monitoring, EPA 600-R-99-095B, 240 pp., 1999
Volume 3. Multicomponent Reactive Transport Modeling, EPA 600-R-99-095C, 52 pp., 1999
D.W. Blowes, R.W. Gillham, C.J. Ptacek, R.W. Puls, T.A. Bennett.
Long-Term Performance Assessment of a Permeable Reactive Barrier at Former Naval Air Station Moffett Field
A. Gavaskar, W.S. Yoon, J. Sminchak, B. Sass, N. Gupta, J. Hicks, and V. Lal.
Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center, Port Hueneme, CA. CR-05-006-ENV, 37 pp, 2005.
A pilot-scale PRB filled with zero-valent iron was installed at former Naval Air Station Moffett Field in April 1996 to address chlorinated organics in the ground water. It was monitored periodically for the next 8 years. This report describes the results of the last round of monitoring conducted in July 2004, the relationship of the recent results to those of previous rounds, and implications for the longevity and hydraulic performance of the PRB.
Regulatory Guidance for Permeable Barrier Walls Designed to Remediate Chlorinated Solvents, 2nd Edition
Interstate Technology Regulatory Cooperation Work Group (ITRC). PBW-1, 44 pp, 1999.
Report for Full-Scale Mulch Wall Treatment of Chlorinated Hydrocarbon-Impacted Groundwater
2004. Groundwater Services, Inc., Houston, TX. DTIC: ADA422621, 97 pp.
Technical Protocol for Enhanced Anaerobic Bioremediation Using Permeable Mulch Biowalls and Bioreactors
Air Force Center for Engineering and the Environment (AFCEE), 302 pp, 2008
Biowall substrates are typically low-cost materials (mulch, compost). The substrates are mixed with common construction materials (sand, gravel) to prevent compaction and maintain permeability. Amendments can be added to stimulate both biotic and abiotic degradation processes, based on the type of contaminant(s) present and the desired degradation pathway(s) to be stimulated. The technology can be applied in source areas or use groundwater recirculation to capture deeper plumes in an in situ bioreactor configuration. Appendix F provides three example case studies evaluating system performance for remediation of chlorinated solvent contamination in ground water: (1) a pilot-scale dual permeable mulch biowall system to address TCE, cis-DCE, and VC at Seneca Army Depot, NY; (2) a permeable mulch biowall to address TCE and cis-DCE at Altus AFB, OK; and (3) a pilot-scale recirculation bioreactor to address TCE, cis-DCE, and VC at Altus AFB.
Demonstration-Site Development and Phytoremediation Processes Associated with Trichloroethene (TCE) in Ground Water, Naval Air Station-Joint Reserve Base Carswell Field, Fort Worth, Texas
2004. S.D. Shay and C.L. Braun. U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2004-3087, 4 pp.
Contact: Gregory Harvey, Gregory.Harvey@wpafb.af.mil
The objective of the demonstration project is to determine the effectiveness of eastern cottonwoods (Populus deltoides) in decreasing the mass of dissolved TCE in ground water through chemical, physical, and biological means.
Deployment of Phytotechnology in the 317/319 Area at Argonne National Laboratory-East: Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH. EPA 540-R-05-011, 88 pp, 2003.
Contact: Steve Rock, rock.steven@epa.gov
In 1999, Argonne National Laboratory-East installed a vegetative cover system and approximately 800 hybrid poplars and willows to contain soil erosion and address chlorinated organics (e.g., PCE and TCE) and tritium in the ground water. The treatment period will continue for up to 20 years. This report presents results from from the first few years of site sampling, monitoring, and modeling.
Evaluation of Phytoremediation for Management of Chlorinated Solvents in Soil and Groundwater
EPA 542-R-05-001, 2005
This document is intended to aid regulators, site owners, consultants, neighbors, and other stakeholders in understanding the proper application of planted systems to remediate groundwater contaminated with halogenated solvents. It assumes a familiarity with environmental and regulatory processes, in general, but little knowledge of plant-based, or 'phytoremediation,' technologies. The document is not intended as regulatory guidance, but as an aid to understanding of the mechanisms of how plants detoxify certain compounds under certain conditions.
FY02 Final Report on Phytoremediation of Chlorinated Ethenes in Southern Sector Seepline Sediments of the Savannah River Site
R.L. Brigmon, F.M. Saunders, D. Altman, E. Wilde, C.J. Berry, M.
Franck, P. McKinsey, S. Burdick, F. Loeffler, S. Harris.
WSRC-TR-2002-00557, 171 pp., 2003.
This final report details the operations and results of a 3-year TCE Seepline Phytoremediation Project adjacent to Tims Branch in the Savannah River site A/M Area. Phytoreactor 1 was planted with loblolly pines, Phytoreactor 2 with hybrid poplars, Phytoreactor 3 was the non-vegetated control to evaluate natural attenuation progress, Phytoreactor 4 was planted with sterile Vetiver grass, and Phytoreactor 5 was set up as a wetland system.
In Situ Remediation of a TCE-Contaminated Aquifer Using a Short Rotation Woody Crop Groundwater Treatment System: ESTCP Cost And Performance Report (CU-9519)
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), 81 pp, 2006
A field-scale demonstration was conducted to evaluate the capability of Eastern cottonwood trees to intercept and treat ground water contaminated with TCE and cDCE at the Carswell Golf Course, Fort Worth, TX (formerly Carswell Air Force Base).
Introduction to Phytoremediation
U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH.
EPA 600-R-99-107, 104 pp, 2000.
Phytoremediation at Naval Air Station-Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth, Fort Worth, TX: Cost and Performance Report
U.S. EPA, Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, 18 pp, 2005
Phytoremediation Field Studies Database for Chlorinated Solvents, Pesticides, Explosives, and Metals
2004
This document was prepared by Ana Hoffnagle and Cynthia Green, two undergraduate students under internships with United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The paper briefly explains the concept of phytoremediation, details phytoremediation site considerations, and summarizes the successes and failures of field-scale sites where phytotechnologies have been applied or proposed.
Phytoremediation of Groundwater at Air Force Plant 4, Carswell, Texas. Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
2003. U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH. EPA 540-R-03-506, 100 pp.
Phytoremediation of TCE in Groundwater Using Populus
Chappell, Jonathan. White paper, 1997.
Phytoremediation of TCE-Contaminated Shallow Groundwater
U.S. EPA Website.
Phytotechnology Technical and Regulatory Guidance Document
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). PHYTO-2, 124 pp, 2001.
Thermal Processes (Steam Injection, Electrical Heating, In Situ Vitrification)
Application Guide for Thermal Desorption
Naval Facilities Engineering Services Center, Technical Report TR-2090-ENV, 256 pp, 1998.
Cost and Performance Review of Electrical Resistance Heating (ERH) for Source Treatment: Final Report
A. Gavaskar, M. Bhargava, and W. Condit.
Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center, TR-2279-ENV, 133 pp, 2007
The five projects examined in this review took place at four Navy sites and one NASA site, all affected primarily by one or more chlorinated solvent DNAPLs:
- Naval Weapons Industrial Reserve Plant Bedford (primarily TCE, plus 1,1,1-TCA, PCE, and breakdown products);
- Naval Complex Charleston (PCE and breakdown products);
- Former Naval Air Station Alameda (vinyl chloride, DCA, 1,2-DCA, 1,1-DCE, trans-1,2-DCE, cis-1,2-DCE, 1,1,1-TCA, 1,1,2-TCA, TCE, and PCE);
- Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune (1,1,2,2-PCA and TCE); and
- Cape Canaveral Air Station (TCE and PCE).
- 2008 Addendum: U.S. Naval Station Annapolis (TeCA, TCE, 1,1,2-TCA)
Demonstration of Resistive Heating Treatment of DNAPL Source Zone at Launch Complex 34 in Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida: Final Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
Gavaskar, A., et al.
Report No: EPA 540-R-08-004, 133 pp + 241 pp of Appendices, Aug 2008
Effects of Thermal Treatments on the Chemical Reactivity of Trichloroethylene
J. Costanza, J. Mulholland, and K. Pennell.
EPA 600-R07-091, 117 pp, 2007
During experiments conducted to investigate abiotic degradation and reaction product formation of TCE when heated, the amounts of TCE degraded were very small at 120°C (0.01%) and 240°C (6.5%); however, a temperature of 420°C converted as much as 20% of the TCE to carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide.
Electrical Resistance Heating of Soils at C-Reactor at the Savannah River Site
M.R. Morgenstern, J.A. Amari, A.M. MacMurray, M.E. Farrar, T.P. Killeen, and R.F. Blundy.
WSRC-STI-2007-00488, 18 pp, 2007
An interim action was selected in 2004 to remove residual TCE source material by ERH technology coupled with SVE, with subsequent monitoring to determine the rate of decrease in the contaminant plume's concentration. A portable ERH/SVE system was deployed at multiple locations around the site. Extensive data were obtained from the first deployment, which heated the vadose zone down to 62 ft bgs over a 60-day period during the summer of 2006 and raised soil temperatures to over 200 degrees F. This treatment extracted 730 lbs of TCE, and subsequent sampling indicated a removal efficiency of 99.4%.
How Heat Can Enhance In-Situ Soil and Aquifer Remediation: Important Chemical Properties and Guidance on Choosing the Appropriate Technique. EPA Ground Water Issue
E.L. Davis.
EPA 540-S-97-502, 18 pp, 1997.
Contact: Eva L. Davis, davis.eva@epa.gov
In Situ Soil and Groundwater Decontamination Using Electric Resistive Heating Technology (Six-Phase Heating)
CL:AIRE Technology Demonstration Project Bulletin 26 (TDP 26), 6 pp, 2008
This bulletin describes the UK's first use of six-phase heating to accomplish source removal of contaminants resulting from historic contamination of a former tools manufacturing site. Investigations at the 2-hectare site showed high levels of dissolved, adsorbed, and free-phase chlorinated hydrocarbons, primarily TCE and vinyl chloride in the soil and TCE in the groundwater. Post-remediation validation sampling results showed final reductions in adsorbed and dissolved-phase TCE concentrations in excess of 98 and 99%, respectively, at the end of 20 weeks. System redesign and continuous close monitoring and optimization throughout the project maintained elevated contaminant extraction rates and allowed considerable savings.
In Situ Thermal Treatment of Chlorinated Solvents: Fundamentals and Field Applications
EPA 542-R-04-010, 145 pp, 2004
This report addresses the use of in situ thermal treatment technologies to treat chlorinated solvents in source zones containing free-phase contamination or high concentrations of contaminants that are either sorbed to soil or dissolved in groundwater in the saturated or unsaturated zone. Information is provided about the following in situ thermal treatments: steam-enhanced extraction, electrical resistive heating, and thermal conductive heating.
New Advancements for In Situ Treatment Using Electrical Resistance Heating
T. Powell, G. Smith, J. Sturza, K. Lynch, and M. Truex.
Remediation, Vol 17 No 2, p 51-70, 2007
At the Fort Lewis, Washington, East Gate Disposal Yard, chlorinated solvents (primarily TCE) and petroleum products are being treated in situ in several contaminant source areas using electrical resistance heating (ERH) and multiphase extraction. This paper updates the progress of the project and discusses data that provide insights into the biotic and abiotic degradation processes observed throughout the range of operating temperatures.
Performance Evaluation of Technology Demonstration for Dynamic Underground Stripping with Hydrous Pyrolysis Oxidation (DUS/HPO) Using a Single Well at Beale Air Force Base
W.S. Yoon, A. Gavaskar, S. McCall, J. Sminchak, S. Carroll, G. Heron, and J. Hicks.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), Project ER-0014, 366 pp, Apr 2005
Evaluates a demonstration of DUS/HPO technology using a single well in a groundwater plume of dissolved-phase TCE and PCE at Beale Air Force Base, where contaminant levels showed declining trendsā??up to 85% in TCE levels and up to 91% in PCE levelsā??in the treatment zone monitoring wells.
Soil Vapor Extraction Using Radio Frequency Heating: Resource Manual And Technology Demonstration
Donald F. Lowe, Carroll L. Oubre, C.H. Ward (eds.).
CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, FL. ISBN: 1566704642, 1999.
Steam Enhanced Remediation Research for DNAPL in Fractured Rock: Loring Air Force Base, Limestone, Maine
E. Davis, N. Akladiss, R. Hoey, B. Brandon, M. Nalipinski, S. Carroll, G. Heron, K. Novakowski, and K. Udell.
EPA 540-R-05-010, 194 pp, 2005.
Contact: Eva L. Davis, davis.eva@epa.gov
Steam Injection for Soil and Aquifer Remediation. Ground Water Issue
E.L. Davis.
EPA 540-S-97-505, 16 pp, 1998.
Contact: Eva L. Davis, davis.eva@epa.gov
Technical Requirements for On-Site Low Temperature Thermal Desorption of Solid Media Contaminated with Hazardous Chlorinated Organics
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). TD-2, 45 pp, 1997.
Technical Requirements for On-Site Low Temperature Thermal Desorption of Solid Media and Low Level Mixed Waste Contaminated with Mercury and/or Hazardous Chlorinated Organics
Interstate Technology and Regulatory Council (ITRC). TD-3, 68 pp, 1998.
Thermal Desorption Implementation Issues: Engineering Forum Issue Paper
John Blanchard and Robert Stamnes.
EPA 540-F-95-031, 9200.5-224FS, 8 pp, 1997.
This issue paper identifies issues and summarizes experiences with thermal desorption as a remedy for volatile organic compounds in soils. The issues presented reflect discussions with over 15 project managers and technical experts.
USA Defense Depot Memphis
U.S. EPA Region 4 Web site.
The most consistently detected VOC group of chemicals at concentrations above comparison criteria in the site media are CVOCs, such as TCE, PCE, 1,1,2,2-PCA, carbon tetrachloride, and chloroform. The final ROD (2004) for Dunn Field calls for excavation and off-site disposal of the contents of pits and burial trenches, SVE of principal-threat waste in the unsaturated subsurface soils, treatment of the groundwater CVOCs via injection of ZVI, and installation of a ZVI PRB to address high groundwater concentrations downgradient of Dunn Field. SVE operation began in the VOC-contaminated sand and gravel layer beneath source areas in July 2007. In situ thermal desorption (ISTD) began in the VOC-contaminated silty clay zone (top 30 ft) in May 2008. VOC removals for all remedies to date (soil and groundwater) totals ~9,000 pounds. A revised proposed plan and ROD amendment are planned for 2009 to document changes undertaken to achieve the remedial action objectives of the original ROD.
Volatilization Technologies (Soil Vapor Extraction, Air Sparging, In-Well Stripping)
Air Sparging Design Paradigm
Andrea Leeson, et al, Battelle, Columbus, OH.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP), 150 pp, 2002.
Contact: Dr. Andrea Leeson, andrea.leeson@osd.mil
Air Sparging Guidance Document
K. Fields, et al., Battelle Memorial Inst.
Naval Facilities Environmental Service Center. NFESC TR-2193-ENV, 119 pp, 2002.
Engineering and Design: In-Situ Air Sparging
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
EM 1110-1-4005, 160 pp, 1997.
Engineering and Design: Soil Vapor Extraction and Bioventing
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
EM 1110-1-4001, 424 pp, 2002.
Field Applications of In Situ Remediation Technologies: Ground-Water Circulation Wells
U.S. EPA, Technology Innovation Office.
EPA 542-R-98-009, 41 pp, 1998.
Contact: Kathy Yager, yager.kathleen@epa.gov
Groundwater Circulating Well Technology Assessment
Allmon, W.E., et al.
Environmental Security Technology Certification Program (ESTCP). NRL/PU/6115-99-384, 87 pp, 1999.
In-Situ Regeneration of Granular Activated Carbon (GAC) Using Fenton's Reagents
R.G. Arnold, W.P. Ela, A.E. Saez, and C.L. De Las Casas, Univ. of Arizona, Tucson.
Developed under a Cooperative Agreement with U.S. EPA, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Subsurface Protection and Remediation Division, Ada, OK. 165 pp, 2006
In laboratory studies and a field pilot-scale demonstration, Fenton's reagents were cycled through spent GAC to degrade sorbed chlorinated hydrocarbons taken up during the treatment phase of soil vapor extraction. Little carbon adsorption capacity was lost in the process.
Roy F. Weston, Inc. and IEG Technologies Corporation Unterdruck-Verdampfer-Brunnen (UVB) Technology: Innovative Technology Evaluation Report
U.S. EPA, Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program.
EPA 540-R-95-500, 180 pp, 1999.
Soil Vapor Extraction Implementation Experiences. Engineering Forum Issue Paper
Robert Stamnes and John Blanchard.
EPA 540-F-95-030, 9200.5-223FS, 10 pp, 1997.
Technology Evaluation Report for the NoVOCs™ Technology Evaluation
U.S. EPA, Superfund Innovative Technology Evaluation (SITE) Program.
EPA 540-R-00-502A, 396 pp, 2000.
CLU-IN Site Profile Databases contain information on thousands of projects where innovative approaches have been used to deal with contamination problems.
Completed North America Innovative Technology Demonstration Projects
Lists field demonstrations of innovative remediation technologies sponsored by government agencies working in partnership with private technology developers.
Federal Remediation Technology Roundtable Technology Cost and Performance Reports
FRTR makes available over 130 reports of cleanup technologies for TCE-contaminated sites.
Technology Focus: The Remediation Technology Information Center
An up-to-date compilation of the most relevant information sources on 17 remediation technologies ranging from the established (SVE) to the innovative (phytoremediation). New information added monthly.
Technology Innovation News Survey Archives
The Technology Innovation News Survey archive contains resources gathered from published material and gray literature relevant to the research, development, testing, and application of innovative technologies for the remediation of hazardous waste sites. The collected abstracts date from 1998 to the present, and the archive is updated twice each month.
